Introduction

Success in project management hinges on the project manager’s ability to negotiate effectively with both upper-level and functional management for the necessary resources to achieve project objectives. However, project managers often find themselves with delegated authority but limited power, requiring a distinct set of managerial skills compared to their functional management counterparts. In this article, we will explore the challenges presented by the project management environment, where individuals at the project-functional interface report to two bosses with different management philosophies. Additionally, we will discuss the five management schools and their implications for project management success.

The Dual Authority Dilemma

The project-functional interface poses a unique challenge as individuals must navigate reporting to both functional managers and project managers. These two entities, with their varying authority levels and responsibilities, treat their people differently based on their respective “management school” philosophies. Let’s delve into the five management schools commonly observed:

1. The Classical/Traditional School: The classical school perceives management as the process of achieving objectives by working with and through people in organized groups. Here, the emphasis is placed on the end-item or objective, often overlooking the importance of individuals involved in the process.
2. The Empirical School: The empirical school suggests that managerial capabilities can be developed by studying the experiences of other managers, regardless of the similarity of situations.
3. The Behavioral School: The behavioral school encompasses two classrooms. The first classroom, human relations, emphasizes the interpersonal relationships between individuals and their work. The second classroom delves into the social system of the individual, viewing management as a system of cultural relationships involving social change.
4. The Decision Theory School: The decision theory school approaches management from a rational standpoint, employing mathematical models and processes such as operations research and management science to facilitate decision-making.
5. The Management Systems School: The management systems school focuses on the development of a systems model characterized by input, processing, and output. It identifies the flow of resources (money, equipment, facilities, personnel, information, and material) required to achieve objectives while maximizing or minimizing certain objective functions. This school also incorporates contingency theory, which emphasizes the uniqueness of each situation and the need to optimize it within system constraints.

Implications for Project Management

In a project environment, functional managers typically align with the first three management schools, while project managers tend to utilize the last two. This disparity creates challenges for both project managers and functional representatives. Project managers must motivate functional representatives to dedicate their efforts to the project using management systems theory and quantitative tools, often with limited consideration for the employee’s individual needs. On the other hand, functional managers prioritize the individual needs of employees by drawing upon traditional or behavioral management approaches.

Modern Management Responsibilities in Project Management

Although the principles and functions of planning, organizing, staffing, controlling, and directing have traditionally been applied to management structures, their application has evolved for temporary management positions, including project management. While the fundamental meanings of these functions remain the same, their practical implementation differs within the project management context.

Conclusion

Navigating the dual authority environment is essential for successful project management. By understanding the distinctions between functional and project management approaches, project managers can effectively overcome challenges at the project-functional interface. By incorporating elements from the various management schools, project managers can develop a comprehensive approach to managing projects and optimizing project outcomes.